Council of Graduate Students Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Council of Graduate Students - Assignment Example There is no additional hierarchy amongst the general members. The group is egalitarian in its scope and all the members do have an important role in it. Each general member is expected to selflessly serve the new arrivals at the college and to acquaint them with the institution’s culture and values. In the case of any ambiguity or doubt, the general members can approach any of the five members of the governing body to seek help and advice. Under special circumstances, the governing body may assign special roles and responsibilities to a select group of general members. However, such groups happen to be task oriented and usually temporary and membership of such a group does in no way makes any general member superior to other members. As the membership of this group is open to all the college students and is voluntary in its scope and perspective, hence this group is very close-knit, bound by the common altruistic aspirations to help, guide and inform the new arrivals at the college. No specific norms tend to govern the group activities. However, the group members are strictly expected to not to succumb to any racial, ethnic, religious, or political considerations while serving the new students. In case it is found that any member has gone contrary to such aspirations, strict action is immediately taken, which usually comprises of a strong warning. A repetitive breach of the group policy may invite a tough action like a suspension from the group membership.

Alternative Drink Industry Analysis Essay Example for Free

Alternative Drink Industry Analysis Essay 1. Do a complete five-forces analysis of competition in the global alternative drink industry, then tell me which of the five competitive forces is strong, weak, and why. Especially in the force of rivalry (one of the 5 forces), you must identify the market size, growth rate, profit margins, what are the main categories in the alternative drink industry, who are the major competitors and their relative sizes, the competition scope, the main competition weapons) 2. Briefly identify 6 to 7 key success factors in the alternative drink industry 3. What are the other economic traits that are outside the industry but still can affect all competitors (for example, overall economy trend, long term innovation, globalization, maturity stage of the industry, relevant legislation, etc. )? Briefly explain how these factors can affect the industry. Notes: 1.   What are the strategically relevant components of the global and U. S. beverage industry macro-environment? How do the economic characteristics of the alternative beverage segment of the industry differ from that of other beverage categories? Explain. The strategically relevant components of the global and U. S. beverage industry macro-environment: †¢ Global beverage companies such as Coca Cola and PepsiCo had relied on such beverages to sustain in volume growth in mature markets where consumers were reducing their consumption of carbonated soft drinks. †¢ Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, and other beverage companies were intent on expanding the market for alternative beverages by introducing energy drinks, sports drinks, and vitamin drinks in more and more emerging international markets. †¢ Beverage producers had made various attempts at increasing the size of the market for alternative beverages by extending existing product lines and developing altogether new products. †¢ Expanding the market for alternatives beverages and increasing sales and market share, beverage producers also were forced to content with criticism from some that energy drinks, energy shots, and relaxation drinks presented health risks for consumers and that some producers’ strategies promoted reckless behavior, the primary concern of most producers of energy drinks, sports drinks, and vitamin-enhanced beverages was how to best improve their competitive standing in the market place. †¢ Rapid growth in the category, coupled with premium prices and high profit margins made alternative beverages an important part of beverage companies’ lineup of brands. The Alternative Beverage Segment Help Companies to Sustain Volume Growth in Mature Markets Where Consumers Were Reducing Their Consumption of Carbonated Soft Drinks. Also the Alternative Beverage Industry Offered 2. What is competition like in the alternative beverage industry? Which of the five competitive forces is strongest? Which is weakest? What competitive forces seem to have the greatest effect on industry attractiveness and the potential profitability of new entrants? Competition from substitutes is substantial. There were many substitutes to alternative beverages such as tea, soft drinks, fruit juices, bottled water and tap water. Even though substitute products had a bigger market share in the US, consumers had tended to buy more alternative beverages. This change in customer preference had weakened the competitive power of substitute beverages. Convenience store, grocery store, and wholesale club buyers had substantial leverage in negotiating pricing and slotting fees with alternative beverage producers because of their large purchases. New brands with low market shares were most vulnerable to buyer leverage since shelf space was limited while top brands such as Red Bull were almost always assured of shelf space. Coca-Cola and PepsiCo were least vulnerable since they offered a wide variety of beverages that convenience stores, grocery stores, and wholesale clubs wished to offer to consumers. As a result of this certain appeal, the two companies’ alternative beverage brands almost always found shelf space in retail stores. The bargaining power and leverage of suppliers was the weakest competitive force. Many suppliers for alternative beverage ingredients and they fight with the others to sell their products. Packaging is readily available from many suppliers and is like a commodity. However, some rare ingredients providers had a moderate amount of leverage in negotiations with energy drink producers. Additionally, the producers of alternative beverages are important customers of suppliers and buy in large quantities. The threat of new brands varies by market maturity of each alternative beverage category. It has low threat for mature categories and moderate to strong in young categories. During the early stages of developing a category, when famous brand leaders had not been established, the threat of entry in alternative beverage categories remained strong. As a result, entrepreneurs launching new beverages with novel formulas or well-developed image campaigns could quickly gain market share among consumers. However, as the category matured, consumer preferences developed and shaped retailers’ purchasing decisions. Once the category had established, its brand leaders, it became much more difficult for new entrants to gain shelf space in convenience stores, supermarkets, and wholesale clubs. Therefore, in 2010, the threat of entry should be lower for all types of alternative beverages except energy shots and relaxation drinks. The competence among sellers of alternative beverage could be considered as the strongest competitive force. Among the sellers of energy drinks and other alternative beverages, competition is so strong and will grow stronger each year. Competition among major brands centers primarily on brand image, an appealing taste, attractive packaging, new product RD, sales promotions and endorsements, and gaining better access to shelf space and strengthening distribution capabilities. As for 2010, there was no evidence of strong price competition in any of the alternative beverage categories, which makes it difficult to argue that competitive rivalry is fierce or brutal. Factors that increase the strength of competitive rivalry included efforts on the part of industry rivals to expand the number and types of alternative beverages in their product lines, low switching costs on the part of consumers, active and aggressive efforts on the part of sellers to establish consumer brand loyalty, and strong emphasis on advertising, sales promotions, and endorsements. MLA Competition in Energy Drinks, Sports Drink, and Vitamin-Enhanced.    28 Sep. 2011. http://www.   Competition in Energy Drinks, Sports Drink, and Vitamin-Enhanced. StudyMode. com. September 28, 2011.

Black Panthers :: essays research papers

Black Panther Party for Self Defense The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was founded in October 1966, in Oakland, California by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale. Armed with sincerity, the words of revolutionaries such as Mao Tse-Tung and Malcolm X, law books, and rifles, the Black Panther Party fed the hungry, protected the weak from racist police, and presented a Ten Point Platform and Program of Black political and social activism. Its "survival programs"-such as food giveaways, free health clinics and free breakfast programs for children-were popular fixtures in Black neighborhoods in the early 1970s, but for the white power structure and the vast majority of the white public, the Panthers represented only anti-government militancy; a view which engendered the wrath of the police and FBI and led to the murder of several Party members by law enforcement. In time, the Black Panthers dropped the "Self-Defense" label from their name. The organization became more of a Marxist-Communist group that favored violent revolution, if necessary, to bring about changes in society. During the mid-1960's, the Black Panthers called for neighborhood control of such services as education and the police. The Panthers supported the use of guns--both for self-defense and to retaliate against people believed to be oppressing the poor. Hostility between the Panthers and the police led to several shoot-outs. During the late 1960's, the Black Panthers began to work with white radical and revolutionary groups that shared their goals. This policy brought the Panthers into disagreement with some African American groups that regarded the struggle of blacks as chiefly racial. According to the Panthers, the basic problem was economic exploitation of both blacks and whites by profit-seeking capitalists. The Panthers called for a fairer distribution of job s and other economic resources. In October of 1967, Huey Newton was shot, arrested and charged with the murder of a white Oakland cop, after a gun battle on the streets of West Oakland that resulted in the death of police officer John Frey. Newton was charges with First Degree murder. Young whites, angry and disillusioned with America over the Vietnam War, raised their voices with young, urban blacks, to cry in unison: "Free Huey!" Newton was convicted of manslaughter but the verdict was later overturned. Fred Hampton was a high school student and a promising leader when he joined the Black Panther Party at the age of 19. His status as a leader grew very quickly.

Marfan Syndrome Research Paper

Jethro LeRoy Gibbs Mr. Vance Biology 24 December 2012 Strong Externally, Weak Internally There was a high debate and many aweing theories arguing if Abraham Lincoln had a disorder called Marfan syndrome or not, which was eventually resolved when Lincoln actually inherited a disease called Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2B. Contributing to the dispute of Marfan syndrome in Abraham Lincoln, in 1964 a physician published his findings and observations in the Journal of the American Medical Association which diagnosed Abraham Lincoln that he had Marfan syndrome (Kugler).However, his conclusions were eventually proven wrong. But despite the false accusations, Marfan syndrome does exist in this world. Anyone who inherits Marfan syndrome faces the real risks and threats which contain devastating consequences. For example, a hard blow to the upper chest can result in immediate death because the connective tissues are alarmingly weak which can lead to serious heart complications and interna l bleeding (Schnitzer 198). Abnormalities in the skeleton, heart, and eyes all contribute to the characterization of Marfan syndrome (Schnitzer 198).Any affected or damaged connective tissues can create or cause internal complications, especially concerning with the heart and the aorta (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†), which is the most serious life threatening risk that can prove to be fatal (Jay). Marfan syndrome is an inherited disorder, characterized by several malfunctions including long bone overgrowth and several abnormalities of the skeleton, heart, and eye, which is caused by a defect and negative mutations in the fibrillin gene or fibrillin-1 that can weaken and devastate the connective tissues throughout the body guaranteeing further complications.In other words, Marfan syndrome weakens the connective tissues, augmenting the risk of damage in bone overgrowth, the skeleton, heart, and eye and at the same time affecting multiple crucial systems throughout the body. Marfan sy ndrome is a no laughing matter, according to four significant reasons: its expanded history, problematic causes, genetic description, and current research. First, Marfan syndrome was carefully observed in the late 1800 century. In 1896, a young patient was meticulously examined by Antoine Bernard – Jean Marfan, hence the name Marfan syndrome, who observed and first described the disorder (Keane).Marfan observed that the young patient had developed long, thin digits – such as the fingers, thumbs, and toes on the hands and feet – as well as the development of unusual long limbs (Keane). Little did he know, however, that this disorder was caused by mutations in the fibrillin gene that encodes a significant component, connective tissues (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†). But the cause was eventually discovered and identified by researchers in 1991, with the help of a generous foundation, the March of Dimes (â€Å"Birth Defects†), which is the second reason why Marfan syndrome is a serious matter.Fibrillin is a protein found in different areas of the body such as the aorta, ligaments, bones, and the lungs (â€Å"Birth Defects†). Thus, fibrillin helps regulate a transforming growth factor called Beta that plays a crucial role in tissue growth and repair (â€Å"Birth Defects†) which helps stabilizes many significant areas throughout the body. Genetic description becomes the third reason. Marfan syndrome can be inherited by anyone (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†), making it autosomal dominant (Jay).Autosomal dominant basically means that one parent can be diagnosed with the disorder (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†) and have a 50-50 chance of passing it on to their children (Jay). The bottom line is that Marfan syndrome is a dominant genetic trait and that everyone can inherit it under certain circumstances (â€Å"Birth Defects†). Finally, being the fourth reason, current research is still underway, despite the fact that the re is no cure yet. However, beginning in the year 2007, a clinical trial began comparing the effects of two different medicines in the effort to reduce the rate of progression of aortic complications (â€Å"Birth Defects†).Unfortunately, studies show that about 25 percent of cases dealing with Marfan syndrome are sporadic, or in other words, caused by a new mutation (â€Å"Birth Defects†). Affecting as many as one in every 10,000 to 20,000 people (â€Å"Donohue†), Marfan syndrome is one of the most common genetic abnormalities. Despite the fact that a cure has not been discovered yet, medical researchers as well as doctors are striving their best to prevent or slow the symptoms of Marfan syndrome and to reduce the complications as well.Marfan syndrome comes with some unfortunate factors such as the signs and symptoms, test screening and diagnosis, and the prognosis also known as the outcome. First, signs and symptoms are crucial to identify as soon as possible. The symptoms of the disorder include, but are not limited to, flat feet, chest that sinks in or sticks out, thin and narrowed face, small lower jaw, nearsightedness, dislocation in the lenses of the eye’s, learning disability, and scoliosis or when the spine curves to one side (Board).However, identifying the symptoms of the disorder can prove difficult (Jay) since age is a crucial factor involved (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†) and that the establishment of a specific, formal test still does not exist (Jay). In other words, doctors become aware of this disorder in people only when the noticeable signs occur caused by the disruption of the connective tissues. Also, the disorder is present at birth even though it may not be diagnosed until at a later time (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†).But when the symptoms do occur, the hands, fingers, feet, and toes may be unusually long as well as the tallness in height with long, thin arms and legs (Schnitzer 198). Skeletal abnormalities include a few deformities of the chest and face (Schnitzer 198). Other symptoms deals with the eyes, such as the dislocation of the eye’s lenses (â€Å"What is†), and the lungs, which can increase the risk and trigger asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia, and collapsed lungs (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†). Secondly, the diagnosis of this syndrome can be determined by some medical evaluation.Based on a clinical diagnosis, the heart, eyes, blood vessels, spine, and skeletal system are most likely to be checked out by medical professionals (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†). When diagnosing a disorder, machines and methods are used to receive valuable information about the status of it. For example, to monitor the changes in the heart and blood vessels, chest x-rays, an electrocardiogram (ECG) and an echocardiogram – which is a type of machine that uses high frequency sound waves to produce a moving picture – all may be used in the process (â€Å"Marfan Syndrom†).Thirdly, the outcomes may seem very challenging to those who have the disorder, but there is a feasible way to live through it all. Changes in the heart and blood vessels were developing in about 90 percent for those who inherit the disorder (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†). Because of this change, people must restrain from heavy activities and exercise as well as strenuous competitive sports which can all place high stress on the heart and aorta (â€Å"Birth Defects†). Thus, participation in less vigorous activities – such as walking, golfing, swimming, and slow-paced tennis – was consider safer to do (â€Å"Birth Defects†).But despite the helpful guidance and support of many programs, treatments, and changes, 50 is usually the average age of death for those who sadly have the disorder (Schnitzer 198). Heart complications and failure is usually a cause for this. However, there have been records and reports where patients have survived beyond the age o f 50, well into their 60s (Board). Despite whether the factors are negative or not, inheriting this type of disorder requires immediate attention and possibly significant changes as well.People who inherit Marfan syndrome will most likely face devastating changes due to the many negative complications and the risks factors that follows. Concerning with the complications, there are four main areas where the disorder can create devastating results which include the heart, face, eyes, and chest. Heart malfunctions is the first one, which is the most serious not to mention the most deadly complication of all (Jay). This is because the aorta, connected with the heart, could easily rupture due to enlargement (Jay).Cardiomyopathy, which is basically the enlargement and the weakening of the heart muscle, is another problem because this could lead to heart failure (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†). But the bottom line for the heart complications associated with the disorder is that the large b lood vessels connecting to the heart may gradually weaken and expand, which can eventually rupture causing death (Schnitzer 198). Complications in the eye, such as nearsightedness and the dislocation of the lenses, can be corrected with glasses or contact lenses; however, more advanced methods may include the usage of medical lasers (â€Å"Birth Defects†).Other complications involve with the chest – in which it may protrude outward or inward – joints – where it becomes increasingly flexible – and the face – where patients may have a long, narrow face and the roof of the mouth may be higher than normal (â€Å"Marfan Syndrome†). Risk factors are another concern, closely following the complications of the disorder. For example, activities that demand such strength and vigorous energy should be avoided at all cost for those who inherit the syndrome because of the following risks, capable of damaging the aorta and eyes (Jay).When someone d iscovers that a family member has Marfan syndrome, it would be the best course of action to visit a genetic counselor to discuss and ascertain who else have or may have inherit the syndrome. Another example involves with pregnancy. If a woman inherits the disorder and becomes pregnant, not only is she at great risk of her aorta rapidly enlarging, causing it to burst resulting in death, but she is also at risk of passing the inherited disorder to her newborn (â€Å"Birth Defects†).Thus it is considerably wise when one or the other parent inherit the syndrome speaks to a genetic counselor and avoid pregnancy to avoid death in return. Despite the numerous complications and risk factors associated with the disorder, there are many feasible solutions and methods on better controlling the outcome of the situation and matter. Despite the many complications associated with Marfan syndrome, there are several ways to fight back and come up with positive solutions using the advantage of special treatments and knowing how to prevent it. First, knowing how to fight back the disorder can be helpful.Some will need regular, medical check-ups, while other may need surgery. Otherwise, three significant steps can be taken to either detect or monitor the disorder thus preventing further complications. One, a medical examination by a cardiologist can examine the heart and other vital organs (Jay). Two, examination of the eye to check the position of the lens on a regular basis can prove crucial (Jay). Three, the participation of genetic counseling is recommended where patients are informed about the risks of passing the disorder on to children and are given advice to deal with the disorder (Jay).Another way to treat the syndrome is using beta blockers, which are high blood pressure medications where they help reduce the strength and frequency of heartbeats (â€Å"Birth Defects†). Surgery is the last defense against the disorder for many. Surgery is only required when the aorta dilates or stretches too much to the extent where necessary repairs need to be made to avoid extensive internal damage (â€Å"Birth Defects†) which can be fatal. Secondly, prevention is harder than it looks when it comes to Marfan syndrome, since the symptoms usually begins at a very early age in either childhood or adulthood.Thus, there is really not a successful way to prevent the disorder (â€Å"Birth Defects†). However, if the diagnosis can be detected at an early age, there is the opportunity where help and treatment can increase the chances of avoiding serious complications (â€Å"Birth Defects†). Although there are several feasible solutions and treatments that can be used to the full extent in treating the disorder, the many fatal risks are still present, and alarmingly high.The one, inherited disorder where connective tissues are consequently very weak caused by the defect in a gene called fibrillin-1 which results in many internal organ comp lications – such as the skeleton, heart, and eyes as well as the development in the long thin limbs and digits – is Marfan syndrome which can become increasingly deadly if not given the proper treatment it deserves. People who have the disorder suffer physically, internally, and mentally. Physically, they can develop skeleton abnormalities, changing the way how they look, and develop long, thin digits making them look unusually tall and thin.Internally, people can suffer all kinds of damage in the heart, eyes, skin, bones, blood vessels, the aorta, and the lungs. The disorder mentally affects both the patient and their relations with others, forcing change in their lives. Even though a cure for the disorder has not been successfully discovered, treatments and versatile methods have been introduced throughout the years since its discovery by Marfan himself. And, researchers today are still striving hard through their own success, failures, and teachings, hopefully openi ng up the gates to a cure of this devastating disorder, Marfan syndrome.Works Cited â€Å"Birth Defects. † March of Dimes. March of Dimes Foundation, n. d. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. . Board, A. D. A. M. Editorial. â€Å"Marfan Syndrome. † PubMed Health. U. S. National Library of Medicine, 18 Jan. 0001. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. . Donohue, Paul G. , Dr. â€Å"Marfan Syndrome Is a Genetic Abnormality Marfan Syndrome Is a Genetic Abnormality. † Providence Journal [Providence] 7 Oct. 1986, ACCENT sec. : C-13. ProQuest Newsstand. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. . Keane, Martin G. , and Reed E. Pyeritz. â€Å"Medical Management of Marfan Syndrome. † Circulation. American Heart Association, n. d. Web. 20 Mar. 2013. . Kugler, Mary, R. N. â€Å"President Lincoln and Marfan Syndrome. † About. com Rare Diseases. About. com, n. d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013. . â€Å"Learning About Marfan Syndrome. † Learning About Marfan Syndrome. Genome. gov, n. d. Web. 25 Mar. 2013.

Life expectancy Essay

Every country measures life expectancy as an index to express the average of years for a person to live in the scale of mortality indicator of a certain period (OECD, 2007). This index is usually affected by particular conditions such as health, education and specific factors of the country or territory. These characteristics have become this index one of the most important signs to quantity human development all over the globe. Although the modern world has brought an increasing of longevity, it is not necessarily associated with a better life quality, the inequalities between rich and poor societies seem to build an enormous gap in the quality of life, which contributes as well to the age of a person. This essay will discuss two reasons that affect the indicator in developing countries and the possible solutions. Health conditions are usually a vital contributing factor of liveability. The World Health Organization (1948) defines health as â€Å"a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity†. In this context, we could say that prevention of diseases lead to a healthy population thus a higher life expectancy. But transferring this into the developing nations’ context the imminent differences are immersed the lack of the quality in health care system, because â€Å"outside the rich countries, average health is strongly correlated with income† (Cutler, 2006). Even though in least-developed countries the reason of mortality and life expectancy are easy to identify, in the case of developing economies the distribution of resources and social inequalities appear to be the main motives. In the case of Mexico there were 70,281 deaths in 2013 due to diabetes type 2 (International Diabetes Federation, 2013), many of these deaths because of bad diet habits and restricted access to health care services. The access to quality health services could make a difference for nations’ life projection. Governments may invest a significant part of the budget in providing health care conditions to the society. Campaigns against increasing diseases can be another option, as illnesses like obesity is gaining territory in developing countries. For example, Mexico is now the most obese country in the world (WHO, 2013) for the high calories content in the food, and that will affect the life expectancy of the current and the future generations. Level of education is another crucial factor of life expectancy. Schooling is directly correlated with salary levels, and that  leads to better access to health services, improvement of productivity and well-being (Rahman, 2012). Knowledge is not only important for creating as well as maintaining a career, but is also a factor in sustaining a healthy body and preventing diseases. One of the most important outputs is that most educated people exercise moderately. In other words, the expenditure of education is an investment that has implication not just in the improvement of income level of individuals, but in the living conditions of population. Education would also improve the quality of labour force that plays a major role in the modern economic growth process. â€Å"The cultivation of intelligence through education, what economists call ‘human capital,’ does not make people only more productive but also better decision makers. Hence, education should be considered a factor that enhances well-being† (Papavlassopulos and Keppler, 2011). It is necessary to highlight the importance of management and financing for schools personnel and the training of new teachers, this way societies could have a well prepared population that can be able to take decisions that affect their lives in a positive way. For example, qualified people may look for a better job and improve life quality with the only result of having a good quality of life thus a higher life expectancy. In conclusion, in recent years the integration of life expectancy rank to determine not just human development rates but to introduce it to ascertain models and economic evaluations. Life expectancy summarises in one statistic number the structure of a society. There are some social and economic relevant factors that affect life expectancy in general, and in the case of developing countries the index is lower than the global average. All developing economies should concentrate the effort in increasing the investment in education and health care services to enhance economic well-being and with this, to improve the life expectancy index of population.

Literature and the Unchanging Past Essays

Literature and the Unchanging Past Essays Literature and the Unchanging Past Essay Literature and the Unchanging Past Essay In â€Å"A Modest Proposal,† Jonathan Swift vents about the tyranny of the English, the ineffectiveness of Irelands politicians, the English anti-Catholic prejudice, and the tendency of the rich, powerful people to treat poor people very badly. In â€Å"The Lottery,† Shirley Jackson writes about a village that blindly tries to preserve a dangerous tradition, even though it culminates a violent murder each year. Even though these two pieces of literature were written centuries apart, they both share a common theme. Both â€Å"The Lottery† and â€Å"A Modest Proposal† address the theme of society and class. Shirley Jackson and Jonathan Swift reveal the devastating consequences of society’s disability to question and correct its hurtful traditions and beliefs. In â€Å"The Lottery,† individuals are persecuted at random by the villagers, and the victim is only guilty of having drawn the wrong slip of paper from a box. This elaborate ritual of the drawing the lottery is designed so that all of the villagers have equal chance of becoming the victim-even children are at risk. Each year, someone new draws the fateful slip of paper, and he or she is chosen and killed. With this ritual, no family member is safe. What makes â€Å"The Lottery† so scary and chilling is the swiftness with which the villagers turn against each victim. At first, the audience only gets a glimpse of how excited the villagers are to draw their slips and follow the tradition. But this merry tone soon becomes dark and serious after Tessie Hutchinson draws the marked slip of paper. She instantly loses her identity as a popular housewife. Her friends and family quickly turn against her. No one even hesitates to participate in the killing. In fact, they kill her with the same enthusiasm as everyone else. After Tessie drew the marked paper, she became invisible. Even though Tessie has done nothing wrong, her innocence isn’t of any value. The only twisted logic is that the one

A theoretical element of media violence

A theoretical element of media violence Various hypotheses have been offered to describe processes of influence which violent TV might have on childrens behavior. All I can do here is to refer to some of these proposed processes briefly. No single process is likely to offer an adequate explanation. Short-Term Influences Modeling/Imitation: Social learning theorists (such as Bandura) emphasize the observational learning of particular kinds of aggression from a model. Those who employ this argument see film and TV characters as models from whom children learn behavior which may be imitated in everyday life. Unless they had seen the film The Deer Hunter the American teenagers who killed themselves with randomly loaded revolvers (as in the films grisly game of Russian roulette) might not have done so. In such cases, simple imitation of media violence is widely cited as the reason for the violent behavior. Symbolic Modelling is a variation on this process, whereby watching violent programmes may be a factor in encouraging violent behavior which is not directly imitated but which has been generalized from the specific behavior demonstrated in the media. Identification In another modified version of the imitation theory, it is argued that viewers tend to adopt the aggressive behavior of characters only if they identify with them and if the characters behavior is seen to be justified. Obviously, people are more likely to imitate the behavior of an attractive model than a less attractive one, and empathy is likely to heighten this tendency. Vicarious Reinforcement: If violence is reinforced by being seen to pay off for the aggressor this may promote its acceptability to the viewer compared with violence which is punished or unproductive. We have already referred to one such example in one of the Bandura studies. Both vicarious reinforcement and identification may mean that aggression by goodies can be more of a problem with children than that of baddies. Criticism of aggressive acts either within the programme itself or by co-viewers tends to reduce imitation by children. Perceived Reality: Another variation of modeling which lacks an agreed label is imitation subject to the degree of perceived reality. Some studies (eg Feshbach 1976) have shown cartoon violence to have a less negative influence on childrens behavior than more realistic violence. Instigation/Arousal According to this variation on modeling, those who are already in a state of high emotional or physiological arousal (which may itself have been influenced by TV) are more likely to engage in aggressive behavior in response to watching a violent incident on TV than are others. Leonard Berkowitz found that if viewers of a violent film were made angry or frustrated before they watched it, they expressed more aggression than those who were not already angry or frustrated. We may also note that heavy viewers tend to be less emotionally aroused by violent TV itself than do light viewers (Gunter McAleer, 1990). Related to the influence of arousal, some commentators refer to reinforcement in a general sense, meaning that TV violence has relatively little independent influence on behavior, but tends to reinforce any aggressive attitudes and behavior which may already exist. Some also refer to this as pre observation reinforcement. The more general argument of reinforcement is that the more aggressive tendencies are reinforced in this way, the more likely it will be that they will produce aggressive behavior. Sensitization is a sort of reverse modeling, whereby viewers react so strongly to some extreme example of realistic violence that they are less likely to imitate it. Ethical considerations mean that its not much studied. Where viewing of violence is light sensitization may be more likely than desensitization. Catharsis (or symbolic catharsis): As we have seen, Seymour Feshbach (1955; Feshbach Singer, 1971) has argued (rather differently from all the varieties of modelling theory) that fantasy violence can have a cathartic effect on viewers, defusing latent aggression, and reducing the possibility of aggressive behaviour. People often report feeling better after watching a really scary film. Note that this theory, which suggests that aggressive behavior television may not have harmful effects, is often si ngled out for an attack, as in the case of the study already referred to by Feshbach and Singer. A serious objection, though, is that the content of TV programmes may be partly responsible for any pent-up aggression or anxieties in the first place! Certainly, theres no doub that TV characters enter into childrens dreams, and TV-inspired fantasies may not only inspire nightmares but may also perform a valuable role in developing defenses against the real or imagined vulnerability. Another version of catharsis theory is that watching violent programmes decreases levels of arousal, leaving viewers less prone to aggressive behavior. Longer Term Influence Disinhibition This related theory formerly advanced by Leonard Berkowitz suggests that people are naturally aggressive, but that they normally repress this aggression. Heavy viewing of violent TV weakens their inhibitions and leads them to feel that aggression is acceptable. Desensitization The notion of desensitization involves the argument that heavy viewing of violent TV over time conditions viewers gradually to accept violence as normal, dulling their sensitivity to aggressive behavior in everyday life. The conditions of ordinary TV viewing may encourage us to relax and enjoy violent images. Arousal declines as the viewing of violence becomes routinized. Drabman Thomas (1984) found that children of 8 to 10 shown a video of aggressive behavior took longer to intervene in apparently real-life violence between two younger children they were left in charge of than children who had not seen the video. However, such studies are still artificially lab-based and do not explore childrens own thoughts and feelings. The origin of such theories is again in the behaviouristic tradition of behavior modification. Observations suggesting densitization may, in fact, have been observing the development of childrens defenses against anxiety. TV viewing may influence not only behavior but also attitudes and beliefs Value Reinforcement: Whilst this doesnt have a technical label, this refers to the theory that TV programmes may reinforce certain values about the use of violence (rather than directly influencing behavior). Programmes where violence is used frequently to settle disputes reinforce the value that aggressive behavior is acceptable. Cultivation Theory: George Gerbner and his colleagues in the USA argue that the most significant effects of TV violence are ideological rather than behavioral. Gerbner sees TV as a modern opiate of the people, serving as a tranquilizer which legitimates the current social order. He has shown that there is a correlation between TV viewing and viewers estimations of the frequency of violence in the everyday world. Heavy viewers are more likely to mistrust other people and to experience fear and insecurity, and therefore to support stronger forms of policing and social control. However, Gerbner makes no allowance for the variety of individual interpretations or for the kind of programmes involved. It may be that more fearful people are drawn to watching more TV. And other social and personality factors may counter such cultivation.